Methodologies

Collaborative learning

Collaborative Learning (CL) is an educational approach in which learners at various performance levels work together in small groups for a common goal (to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product). It is based on the development of new knowledge through interaction with team members (Vera et al., 2020). In this teaching and learning approach students have opportunity to interact with peers, and to present and defend their ideas. Therefore, they begin to create their own unique conceptual frameworks and not rely solely on an expert's or a text's framework (Laal and Laal, 2012: 491; Srinivas, H., 2011).

The use of this methodology fosters the development of competencies such as flexibility, trust, tolerance and self-awareness. It allows to implement the concept of shared responsibility. Students take responsibility not only for their own learning, but also for the learning of others. Its use in work environments can improve productivity as well as improve of the workplace atmosphere.

It is a very suitable methodology for geotechnologies, and heritage projects given its transversal nature in multidisciplinary teams.

1. Vera, L. S. L., Campuzano, M. F. P., and Laz, E. M. S. A. (2020). Collaborative Work to Build Meaningful Learning in Basic General Education. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(10).
2. Patel, H., Pettitt, M., & Wilson, J. R. (2012). Factors of collaborative working: A framework for a collaboration model. Applied ergonomics, 43(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2011.04.009

Flipped Learning

FL is an instructional model that shifts from a teacher-centered classroom to a student-centered approach. In this case the content and material of the class are delivered primarily outside of the classroom while in-class time is used to put into practice higher-order thinking skills (according to revised Bloom´s taxonomy) such as problem-solving, discussion or debates proposed about advanced concepts, or to engage in collaborative learning (Galway et al., 2014; Prieto et al., 2021). Teachers deliver instruction by recording or narrating screencasts of work they do on their computers, creating videos of themselves teaching (Hamdan et al., 2013) or using different printed or electronic documents from reputable and trusted sources (universities, peer-reviewed publications, professional societies, etc.).

According to Flipped Learning Networks, FL can be defined as:

“a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter” (Flipped Learning Network, 2014).

Research has shown some positive effects of this model, that increases motivation and involvement of students, improves academic performance, contributes to better development of competencies and skills and also has a positive impact on students´ perceptions of their own learning experience (Prieto et al, 2021). Inverse teaching has been considered as a successful alternative to conventional lecture-based teaching as it offers a framework for integrating online learning technologies with active and collaborative learning (Galway et al, 2014).

FL has some precedents in different innovative methodologies, that emerged and were implemented in the last decades of the 20th century, such as Just-in-Time Teaching (JITT), Peer Instruction (PI), and Team-based Learning (TBL).

1. Flipped Learning Network (FLN), (2014). Retrieved from: https://flippedlearning.org/definition-of-flipped-learning/. Accessed 02/07/2021.
2. Galway, L.P.; Corbett, K.K.; Takaro, T.K.; Tairyan, K. and Frank, E. (2014).
3. A novel integration of online and flipped classroom instructional models in public health higher education. BMC Medical Education, 14, 181. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-181 . Accessed 02/07/2021.
4. Hamdan, N.; McKnight, P.E.; McKnight, K. and Arfstrom, K.E. (2013). The Flipped Learning Model. A White Paper based on the Literature Review, Flipped Learning Network, 3-20. Retrieved from here. Accessed: 02/07/2021
5. Prieto, A.; Barbarroja, J.; Álvarez, S. and Corell A. (2021).Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model in university education: a synthesis of the best evidence. Revista de Educación, 391, pp. 149-177. DOI: 10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2.

Gamification

Gamification can be defined as “the use of game design elements in non-game contexts” (Deterding et al., 2011). This term is related to similar concepts such as serious games (the use of complete games for non-entertainment purposes), playful interaction, and game-based technologies. Gamification is a term originated in the digital media industry. The first documented use of the term Gamification dates to 2008 (Deterding et al., 2011).

Its application as a teaching methodology helps to capture the attention of students, generate more attractive content (Alexander, 2016) and improve academic performance (Hernández-Horta, Monroy-Reza and Jiménez-García, 2018). In addition, game dynamics stimulate and motivate both competition and cooperation between players (Kapp, 2012, 2016).

The concept of gamification is based on the natural interest that the game itself arouses in the general population (Senatore, Gallozzi, Cigola and Strollo, 2020). Game dynamics in environments where it is not applied, serves to stimulate users and enables direct interaction with the environment (Gómez et al., 2014). As has been shown in various studies, gamification is especially useful to enhance cognitive, emotional and social aspects (Lee and Hammer, 2011).

The applications and possibilities of the methodology are multiple and varied, covering different scientific areas. Gamification applied to cultural heritage has become increasingly important in recent years for the promotion of cultural spaces and museums (Anderson et al., 2010). It has become a strategic digital marketing tool which adds to its traditional function of facilitating learning through play (“learning by playing”) (Bonacini and Giaccione, 2021).

References:

1. Alexander, H. (2016). La gamificación como estrategia metodológica en el contexto educativo universitario. Realidad y Reflexión, (44), 31–47.
2. Anderson, E. F., McLoughlin, L., Liarokapis, F., Peters, C., Petridis, P., and de Freitas, S. (2010). Developing serious gamer for cultural heritage: A state-of-art Review. Virtual Reality, 14(4), 255–275.
3. Bonacini, E. and Giaccone, S. C. (2021). Gamification and cultural institutions in cultural heritage promotion: a successful example from Italy. Cultural Trends, DOI: 10.1080/09548963.2021.1910490
4. Burke, B. (2012). Gamification 2020: what is the future of gamification? Standford: Gartnet.
5. Deterding, S., Khaled, R.; Nacke, L.e. and Dixon, D. (2011), Gamification: toward a definition. In Tan, D.; Begole, B. (Ed.). Design ACM CHI, Vancouver, 12-15.
6. Gómez Álvarez, M. C., Gasca-Hurtado, G. P., Calvo-Manzano Villalón, J. A., and San Feliu Guilabert, T. (2014). Diseño de un instrumento pedagógico para la enseñanza de la mejora de procesos software. Intrumento de enseñanza para ambientes universitarios y empresariales.
7. Hernández-Horta, I. A., Monroy-Reza, A., and Jiménez-García, M. (2018). Aprendizaje mediante Juegos basados en Principios de Gamificación en Instituciones de Educación Superior. Formación Universitaria, 11(5), 31–40.
8. Kapp, K. M. (2012). The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game–based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. John Wiley and Sons Inc.
9. Kapp, K. M. (2016). Choose your level: Using games and gamification to create personalized instruction. In J. Murphy, M.; Redding, S. and J. Twyman (Ed.), Handbook on personalized learning for states, districts, and schools (pp. 131-143). Temple University, Center on Innovations in Learning. Retrieved from: http://centeril.org/2016Handbook/resources/Cover_Kapp_web.pdf. Accessed: 05/07/2021.
10. Lee J, J. and Hammer, J. (2011). Gamification in Education: What, How, Why Bother? Academic Exchange Quarterly, 15(2), 1–5.
11. Marín, V. (2015). La Gamificación educativa. Una alternativa para la enseñanza creativa In: Digital Education Review, 27 [Accessed: 26/06/2021] http://greav.ub.edu/der
12. Ortiz-Colón, A. M.; Jordán, J. y Agredal, M. (2018) Gamificación en educación: una panorámica sobre el estado de la cuestión, Educación Pesquisa, São Paulo, v. 44, e173773, 2018. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1678-4634201844173773
13. Senatore, L., Gallozzi, A., Cigola, M. and Strollo, R. M. (2020). Citizen Science y gamificación aplicados a los bienes culturales. EGA Revista de Expresion Grafica Arquitectonica, (39), 232–239.

1. Flipped Learning Network (FLN), (2014). Retrieved from: https://flippedlearning.org/definition-of-flipped-learning/. Accessed 02/07/2021.
2. Galway, L.P.; Corbett, K.K.; Takaro, T.K.; Tairyan, K. and Frank, E. (2014).
3. A novel integration of online and flipped classroom instructional models in public health higher education. BMC Medical Education, 14, 181. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-181 . Accessed 02/07/2021.
4. Hamdan, N.; McKnight, P.E.; McKnight, K. and Arfstrom, K.E. (2013). The Flipped Learning Model. A White Paper based on the Literature Review, Flipped Learning Network, 3-20. Retrieved from here. Accessed: 02/07/2021
5. Prieto, A.; Barbarroja, J.; Álvarez, S. and Corell A. (2021).Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model in university education: a synthesis of the best evidence. Revista de Educación, 391, pp. 149-177. DOI: 10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2.

Peer tutoring

The model of “peer tutoring” (PT) (also called Peer-Assisted Learning) has particularities with respect to the broader concept of “peer teaching” (PI) (developed by E. Mazur in the 90s at the University from Harvard) or “peer learning (PL). It is related to other models such as Team-Based Learning, and collaborative learning activities.

The application of this methodology requires working in small groups or pairs of students with the aim of offering mutual didactic support. Participants assume specific roles, either as a tutor or tutored, to develop the contents of the study plan and apply the established interaction procedures, in which they must receive specific training (Topping, 2015). Students of greater age, ability, or experience serve as tutors to systematically teach others of less age, ability, or experience. A specific characteristic of this method is that students take responsibility for both the teaching-learning process and its evaluation. The teacher's task is aimed at providing feedback to each student regarding their performance and can take different forms, such as reinforcing learning or correcting misunderstandings. In reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT) all students function as tutors and as tutored, that is, they give instruction and also receive it, thus applying the maxim that there is no better learning to help than being helped.

This methodology has proven to obtain positive results not only in academic aspects but also in psychosocial and interaction skills. It also presents some risks, such as the transmission of erroneous knowledge or the lack of communication with the teacher. Planning is essential for the development of this type of practice that is framed in the constructivist theory of the development of knowledge of Jean Piaget, the concept of zone of proximal development of Lev Vygotsky and in various theories related to social psychology, for example , role theory.

1. Mor, Y., Warburton, S., Nørgård, R. T. and Ullmo, P. A. (2016).MOOC design workshop: Educational innovation with empathy and intent. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), 9891 LNCS(September), 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45153-4_42.
2. Mor, Y., Warburton, S. and Winters, N. (2012). Participatory pattern workshops: A methodology for open learning design inquiry. Research in Learning Technology, 20(SUPPL), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v20i0.19197.
3. Zenni, E. A. and Turner, T. L. (2021). Planning and Presenting Workshops That Work: A Faculty Development Workshop. MedEdPORTAL, The AAMC Journal of Teaching and Learning Resources 17(1), mep_2374-8265.11158. https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11158.

Problem-based Learning

Problem-BL began to be used at the McMaster School of Medicine in Canada in the mid-1960s. From the health sciences it was extended to other applications in various disciplinary field. This method is defined as a multidimensional process in which cognitive, emotional, cultural and social aspects participate, where exercises are replaced by assumptions and real problems that have an interdisciplinary, professional nature, with multiple solutions and / or different resolution strategies. A situation, task or challenge is considered a problem, which is the source of learning.

The application of Problem-BL contributes to the development of skills and competencies necessary for intellectual growth. Teaching based on this strategy aims to emphasize activities that pose situations whose resolution requires analysis, discovery, elaboration of hypotheses, confrontation, reflection, argumentation and the communication of ideas to achieve student learning (Pérez and Chamizo, 2011).

References

1. García de la Vega, A. (2010). Aplicación didáctica del aprendizaje basado en problemas al análisis geográfico. Revista de Didácticas Específicas, (2), 43–60.
2. Pérez, Y. and Chamizo, J. A. (2011). Los museos: un instrumento para el Aprendizaje Basado en Problemas (ABP). Revista Eureka Sobre Enseñanza y Divulgación de Las Ciencias.
3. Molina, N. P. (2013). El aprendizaje basado en problemas (ABP) como estrategia didáctica. Revista Academia y Virtualidad, 6(1), 53–61. Retrieved from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5777664
4. Pawson, E., Fournier, E., Haigh, M., Muniz, O., Trafford, J., and Vajoczki, S. (2006). Problem-based Learning in Geography: Towards a Critical Assessment of its Purposes, Benefits and Risks. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30(1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260500499709
5. Silviariza, W. Y., and Handoyo, B. (2020). Spatial-Problem Based Learning (SPBL) development (preliminary studies for geography learning). Jurnal Pendidikan Geografi, 25(1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.17977/um017v25i12020p069
6. Stegeager, N., Thomassen, A. O., and Laursen, E. (2013). Problem Based Learning in Continuing Education – Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education, 1(1), 151–175. https://doi.org/10.5278/ojs.jpblhe.v1i1.280

Project-based Learning

Is a pedagogical methodology that “places the learner in the focus as the builder of his or her own learning, being able to solve specific problems or challenges autonomously” (Hernández et al., 2021:15).

The use of the term dates to 1918 and has its origins in the work of J. Dewey and W. Kilpatrick. It can be understood as a broad category which could take several forms as:

• Designing or creating a tangible product, performance or event.
• Solving a real-world problem.
• Investigating a topic or issue to develop an answer to an open-ended question (Larmer, 2015).

For some authors, problem-based learning is a variant of project-based learning, because one way to propose a project is to "solve a problem". But problem-BL has its own history (that dates back to medical schools in the 1960s) and own procedures, which are more formally observed than in other types of projects. Furthermore, the Problem-BL is more frequent in Higher Education than in Primary or Secondary Education where the Project-BL is more common.

Some advantages of this methodology are: it can be easily applicable to any subject or content; it stimulates autonomous learning, improving decision-making and increasing responsibility, and it is motivating and joyful, setting challenges that arouse curiosity (Hernández et al, 2021:5).

The method consists of carrying out a project of a certain size, generally in a group. The teacher must ensure that the student has all the necessary elements for analysis. Its role is to guide the student and direct him towards the development of the skills that must be acquired during the process. Feedback from others in the group (or from the teacher/facilitator/instructor) is essential during the process.

1. Chiu, P. H. P. et al. (2016). A project-problem based learning approach for appreciating ancient cultural heritage through technologies: Realizing mystical buildings in Dunhuang Mural. Proceedings of 2016 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment and Learning for Engineering, TALE 2016, (December), 65–69. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TALE.2016.7851772.
2. Hernández-Barco, M., Sánchez-Martín, J., Corbacho-Cuello, I., and Cañada-Cañada, F. (2021). Emotional Performance of a Low-Cost Eco-Friendly Project Based Learning Methodology for Science Education: An Approach in Prospective Teachers. Sustainability, 13(6), 3385. Available here.
3. Larmer, J. (2014) Project-based learning vs. problem-based learning vs. X-BL. Available at: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/pbl-vs-pbl-vs-xbl-john-larmer
4. Savery, J.R. (2006)Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1 (1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002.
5. Wood, E. J. (2004).Problem-Based Learning: Exploiting Knowledge of how People Learn to Promote Effective Learning, Bioscience Education, 3:1, 1-12, DOI: 10.3108/beej.2004.03000006.

Service-learning projects

It is a methodology that combines theoretical learning and practical application, also providing extra value in the framework of social responsibility (Marco-Gardoqui, Eizaguirre and García-Feijoo, 2020). According to Anderson (1998) Service Learning is a growing pedagogy that integrates community service into an organized curriculum that includes regular opportunities for personal reflection. In Service Learning:

1. youth are encouraped to take the lead,
2. in responding to genuine communitv needs,
3. through service that is integrated into a thoughtfully organized curriculum
4. and accompanied by regular opportunities for personal reflection

The origins of Service-Learning date back to the 1970s. It is contextualized within the North American pedagogical “New School” movement, where the contributions of William James and John Dewey with their premise “Learning by Doing” were especially important for the development of the methodology (Sotelino-Losada, Arbues-Radigales, García-Docampo and González-Gerardo, 2021; González-Gerardo, Jover and Martínez, 2017; Tapia, 2012). It has acquired increasing importance in recent decades with respect to its presence in higher education institutions (Del Mar et al, 2021).

1. Anderson, S. M. (1998). Service Learning: A national strategy for youth development. Washington DC: Institute for Communitarian Policy Studies, George Washington University.
2. Billig, S. h., & Waterman, A. S. (2012). Studying Service-Learning. Innovations in Education Research Methodology. New York: Routledge.
3. Del Mar Lorenzo Moledo, M., De Minguez, C. R., Radigales, E. A., Usurralde, M. J. M., Fernandez, M. ., & Nuñez, I. M. (2021). Service-Learning in the Spanish university system. A study focused on course evaluation. Aula Abierta, 49(4), 353–362.
4. González-Gerardo, J. L., Jover, G., & Martínez, M. (2017). La ética del aprendizaje servicio en la Universidad: una interpretación desde el pragmatismo. Bordón. Revista Pedagógica, 69(4), 63–78.
5. Marco-Gardoqui, M., Eizaguirre, A., & Garcia-Feijoo, M. (2020). The impact of service-learning methodology on business schools’ students worldwide: a systematic literature review. PLoS ONE, 15.
6. Sotelino-Losada, A., Arbues-Radigales, E., García-Docampo, L., & González-Gerardo, J. L. (2021). Service-Learning in Europe. Dimensions and understanding From Academic Publication. Frontiers in Education, 6.
7. Tapia, M. N. (2012). La solidaridad como pedagogía: la propuesta del aprendizaje-servicio. Educ. Stud., 13(1), 23–36.

Virtual Learning Environment

Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is “a consistent model of integrating a set of tools (forums, quizzes) and data (students, content) within a context of a course or module”. (Wilson et al:2007). Throughout this century, they have been growing and diversifying, being implemented in countless platforms, systems and countries. A Clear example of this made in open-source versions is Moodle. It is an essential element in the design of today's education, whether face-to-face, on-line or hybrid, especially after the advent of the COVID pandemic.

• Wilson, S., Liber, O., Johnson, M., Beauvoir, P., Sharples, P., and Milligan, C. (2007). Personal Learning Environments: Challenging the dominant design of educational systems. Journal of E-learning and Knowledge Society,3(2), 27-38.

• Moodle https://moodle.org/

Workshop

The workshop is a teaching-learning methodology characterized by research, discovery, and teamwork. Its goal is the development of a tangible product and requires the collection of specialized material related to the topic to be addressed. This model focuses on problem solving and requires the active participation of students. The workshops not only address the theoretical content of a subject, but also focus on know-how, that is, on the development of a practical demonstration of an activity. An essential aspect for the design of the workshop is an interdisciplinary and globalizing approach. The role of the teacher is that of a technical assistant who helps to learn. Students acquire knowledge through practice and their answers or solutions have a fundamental value that can be as important or more than those of the teacher himself. The workshops can be organized from individual work, in pairs or in small groups of the participants. In any case, the activity carried out must go beyond mere theoretical knowledge and lead to comprehensive learning that involves practice.

1. Mor, Y., Warburton, S., Nørgård, R. T. and Ullmo, P. A. (2016)..MOOC design workshop: Educational innovation with empathy and intent. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), 9891 LNCS(September), 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45153-4_42.
2. Mor, Y., Warburton, S. and Winters, N. (2012).Participatory pattern workshops: A methodology for open learning design inquiry. Research in Learning Technology, 20(SUPPL), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v20i0.19197.
3. Zenni, E. A. and Turner, T. L. (2021). Planning and Presenting Workshops That Work: A Faculty Development Workshop. MedEdPORTAL, The AAMC Journal of Teaching and Learning Resources 17(1), mep_2374-8265.11158. https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.11158.